Media Aesthetics

  Lecture #1

Defining Media Aesthetics & Importance of Context

  

Roots of “Aesthetics”

•      Greek, from the verb aisthanomai (I perceive) & the noun aisthetike (sense perception).

  

  Traditional Aesthetics

•      A philosophical concept dealing with the perception, understanding, and appreciation of “beauty.”

•        

•      An attempt to establish a set of criteria from which to judge the beauty of art.

–   painting

–   sculpture

–   architecture

  

Applied Media Aesthetics

•      media elements (for this class) = primarily television, videotape, & film 

•      a process (not just a static concept)

•      “a process in which we examine media elements and our perceptual reactions to them”

•      allows us to assess the communicative effectiveness of existing media elements as well as for creating them (analysis & synthesis)

  

Fundamental Media Elements

•      light & color

•      two-dimensional space

•      three-dimensional space

•      time/motion

•      sound

  

•      The study of these phenomena should provide you with “an aesthetic vocabulary and language that will allow you to speak with optimum clarity and impact” about the media you both consume and create. 

  

Aesthetics and Context

•      Aesthetic experiences are part of everyday life.

•      Art draws on life for creation.

•      Life’s experiences are not art.

•      Everyday experiences serve as the raw material for the creation of art.

•      Media artists clarify, intensify, and interpret human experience for exhibition to audiences.

•      They do this for a variety of communicative purposes.

  

Aesthetics and Context

•      Media’s aesthetic elements should not be assessed in a vacuum.

•      They are not absolutes.

•      Aesthetics are best understood when taken into account with the context in which they were created.

–   time  (year/era/historical context)

–   situation/purpose/probable viewing circumstances

–   preferred reading (intentions of the media creator)

   

Aesthetics and Context

•      Media’s aesthetic elements function in changing contextual relationships. 

•      We can isolate them for analysis, but they do not function in isolation. 

•      They work in concert with each other to create a communicative “whole.” 

–    a particular film/video 

–    a particular TV production 

•      They must be chosen and analyzed as part of this “whole.” 

  

 Summary

•      Applied media aesthetics differs from traditional aesthetics (process, analysis & synthesis).

•      Everyday human experience provides media artists with raw material.

•      Media artists clarify, intensify, & interpret human experience for communicative purposes.

•      We perceive and judge aesthetic phenomena within a contextual frame of reference.

•      Basic media aesthetic elements are light, space, time/motion, and sound.

  

COM 402
Media Aesthetics

Lecture #2                         light & shadow 

  

mise-en-scène

•      French, for “putting into the scene”

•      term originated in the theater

•      in film studies, everything that appears in the film frame

  

         Every visible element within the film frame communicates meaning.

  

Four aspects of mise-en-scène 

•     setting

  

•     costume and make-up 

  

•     lighting 

  

•     staging: movement and acting 

  

  

Lighting 

•      Lighting “is the direct manipulation of light and shadows for a specific communication purpose.”

  

•      Lighting is a major part of each shot’s composition, guiding viewer attention to certain objects and actions.

  

Lighting

•      Lighting can shape objects through highlight and shadow.

–  highlight = “a patch of relative brightness on a surface” 

–  highlighting can articulate textures (smoothness, roughness, shinyness) 

  

  Four Features of Lighting

•    quality 

  

•    direction 

  

  •    source 

  

•    color 

  

Lighting Quality

•      the relative intensity of the illumination (depends on the situation)

  

•      hard lighting = more intense, creating defined shadows, crisp textures, sharp edges

  

•      soft lighting = a more diffused illumination, edges of objects not as sharp

  

Hard Lighting

  

Soft Lighting

  

Lighting Direction

•     the path of light from its source(s) to the object lit 

•       

•     Five general types: 

•     frontal lighting 

•     sidelighting 

•     backlighting 

•     toplighting 

  

frontal lighting

  

  •      object is lit from the front, producing a flat-looking image with no shadows

sidelighting

  

•      object is lit from the side, suggesting dimension and creating attached shadows

backlighting

  

•      object is lit from the back, producing a silhouette effect or, when used with other lights, unobtrusive contour to the object

  

  underlighting

  

  •      object is lit from underneath, tending to distort an object’s features/can also suggest a realistic light source (i.e., a lantern or fire)

  

toplighting

  

•      object is lit from above, suggesting contours and depth

  

Chiaroscuro Lighting

Lighting for high light/dark contrast, often used to give characters or scenes an expressive quality. 

    

Lighting Sources

•      available light (sunlight, moonlight, or preexisting light sources on the set

•      extra light sources include:

•      key light = provides the dominant illumination and creates the most shadows

•      fill light = provides less intense illumination, softening or eliminating shadows created by the key light

•      key and fill light are usually combined

  

  Three-point Lighting

•      combination of key light, fill light, and backlight

•      the dominant technique for television and Hollywood films

  

  Lighting and Color

•      Generally, only white light is used, allowing the illuminated objects to contribute color.

•      Filmmakers sometimes use filters and gels to change the hue of the shot.

–   sometimes to enhance realism (i.e., orange for firelight)

–   sometimes to stylize a shot (i.e., blue to suggest depression)

  

  Shadow

•      lighting’s counterpart is shadow.

•      Two types of shadows:

  

•    attached shadow 

•    cast shadow 

  

  Attached Shadow

•      (also called shading) = when an object or person’s features result in partial illumination

•      inevitably fixed to its object

–    i.e., someone’s hat creating a shadow on part of their face 

•      helps to reveal the basic form of an object and its texture 

•      Light objects from above or the side if you want your viewers to perceive protrusions and indentations as “normal.” 

  

 Cast Shadow 

•      when an object or person is partially illuminated because another object is blocking the light source.

–    i.e., a door casting a shadow on an intruder 

•      can be connected or disconnected to the object 

•      helps viewers to locate an object in relation to its surroundings 

•      can suggest locale 

•      can create a mood 

•      can reveal time of day 

  

  

Falloff 

•      the degree of contrast & rate of change from light to shadow

•      fast falloff = very quick (even abrupt) change from light to shadow

–   caused by a bright, highly directional light source (spotlights/bright sun)

–   can suggest a defined edge

•      slow falloff = gradual change & little contrast between illuminated and shadow sides

–   caused by diffused light source (scoop/filtered)

  

 No Falloff

when all sides are
equally bright

  

  Summary

•      mise-en-scène 

•      definition of lighting

•      four features of lighting (quality, direction, source, color)

•      chiaroscuro lighting

•      attached and cast shadows

•      fast and slow falloff

 COM 402
Media Aesthetics

#3

The Use of 

Color & Black-and-White 

(color is a human perception) 

•     color = “light that has been divided into one or more visible light waves by some object” 

•     visible spectrum colors = red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, & violet 

  

Color Attributes 

•      hue = a color itself

•      saturation = the richness of a color—how strong it is

•      brightness = how much light a color reflects

•      additive primary colors = red, green, & blue

•      subtractive primary colors = yellow, cyan, & magenta

–   green + red = yellow 

–   green + blue = cyan 

–   red + blue = magenta 

–   red + green + blue = white 

–   yellow + cyan + magenta = black 

  

Additive and Subtractive Mixing 

•      additive mixing (green, red, blue) = putting colors on top of each other to create new hues 

  

•      subtractive mixing (yellow, cyan, magenta) = these colors filter out (subtract) existing hues  

  

Surrounding Colors 

•      greatly affects our perception

•      a colored object in front of a similarly colored background loses prominence

–   can even take on background “tinge”

•      can reduce background color through reduction of illumination

•      If distinction is desired, you should use contrasting background and foreground colors.

  

  Warm and Cold Colors 

•      deviations from the main hue

•      Some colors seem to invite reliable emotional reactions:

•      “warm” colors (i.e., reddish blue, orangish yellow, etc. )

•      “cold” colors (i.e., bluish yellows, bluish red, etc.)

•      warm colors suggest excitement, activity, etc.

•      cool colors suggest calmness, mood dampening

  

Color Symbolism 

•      convention dictates that certain colors are symbols of events, beliefs, behaviors

–   black = death

–   red = stop

–   white = purity

–   pink = girls

–   blue = boys

•      If using color symbolically, be sure to clearly establish the context and use symbolism with which most of your audience is familiar.

    

Expressive Functions of Color 

•     The use of colors to make us “feel” a certain way. 

  •     to express an essential quality 

•     to add excitement and drama 

•     to help establish a mood 

  

Using Color to Express an Essential Quality 

red Dodges (power, fun, mobility) 

  

Excitement and Drama 

•     usually supplied by “high-energy” colors (bright hues) & changing colors 

•     color can assume a primary role in a story 

–  Traffic, O Brother, Where Art Thou?,  Krzysztof Kieœlowski’s Red, White, or Blue. 

  

Establishing a Mood 

•      Use of color to establish mood should not be regarded as a generalization.

–   red for violence

–   grays or blues for low energy or calmness

•      They can be effective if used harmoniously.

–   soft colors with love scene

•      They can be effective is used contrapuntally.

–   low-energy colors with high-energy scene 

•      It depends on the context!!!

    

Artificial Color with Lighting 

•     Artificial colored light is created by placing a gel in front of a white light. 

  •     All colors except that of the filter (gel) are subtracted from the visible spectrum. 

  

Computer Colorization 

•     best if done in post-production (editing) phase 

•     easy, but time-consuming at first 

•     convenient (can save different versions for comparison) 

•     watch O Brother extra 

•     Traffic 

    

Desaturation Theory 

•      Notion that highly saturated colors work well with high-energy scenes.

•      High-energy colors often have a “blunt and brazen impact” on viewers. 

•      Desaturation theory suggests that, by desaturating or even omitting these colors, you can reduce this “blunt and brazen impact” effect.

•      Complete desaturation results in black-and-white.

  

The Expressive Functions of Black-and-White 

•      Which is more realistic? Color? or Black-and-white filming? 

•      Can you combine the two for expressive purposes? 

•      The world used to be only black-and-white. 

•      Why continue to use black-and-white today? 

•      Pleasantville 

•      Young Frankenstein 

•      Eyes on the Prize clip 

•      Poe (student video) 

  

  

Summary 

•      colors, including the spectrum colors, are a human perception. 

•      hue, saturation, brightness 

•      additive primaries (red, green, blue) 

•      subtractive primaries (yellow, cyan, magenta) 

•      surrounding colors 

•      warm and cold colors 

•      high-energy/low-energy colors 

•      symbolic and expressive functions of color 

•      desturation theory 

•      black-and-white 

COM 402
Media Aesthetics

Aspect Ratio & Shot Size

  

Framing 

•             frame defines the image for the viewer

•             initially defined and constrained by aspect ratio

•             can be manipulated by media artist through camera position, masking, and use of multiple screens

•             framing issues include:

•             frame size and shape (aspect ratio)

•             notions of onscreen and offscreen space

•             basic camera shots

•             mobile framing

  

Framing Functions

•      can suggest character traits, psychological states, emotional reactions

•      can suggest power, dominance, submission

•      can suggest comic effect

•      can function as narrative motifs

–   XLSs of John Ford Westerns

–   canted shots of Radio Raheem in Do the Right Thing

•      Framing functions must be considered within the context of each particular film.

  

Frame Size and Shape 

•             aspect ratio = relation of frame width to frame height

•             the wider the frame, the greater potential for:

•             communicating more visual information

•             communicating larger sense of space

•             communicating value for intimate subjects

•             manipulating viewer attention on the screen

•             But, a wider frame can also be problematic. 

  

Common Screen Sizes

1.33:1 (classic film & traditional TV standard) 

  

•      former Academy standard in U.S.

•      readily adaptable for TV

•      good for close ups & extreme close ups

•      current computer screen ratio

  

  1.85:1 (standard wide-screen) 

  

•      current Academy standard in U.S.

•      most Hollywood films shot in 1.85:1

•      provides greater vista than 1.33:1 & enables more information

  

2.35:1 (Panavision) 

  

•      anamorphic lens “squeezes” image, which is “unsqueezed” during projection 

•      must be cropped, panned & scanned, or “letterboxed” for TV viewing 

•      great for revealing lots of information 

•      tough to do good closeups 

  

  1.77:1 (HDTV) 

•      HDTV Aspect Ratio 

•      Wider than most TV formats, yet not as wide as the current academy standard for movies. 

•      Can accommodate widescreen without much picture loss. 

    

Manipulating Aspect Ratio

•      Can be done with masking (blocking out part of the frame.

•      Can be done by mobile framing (moving the camera while shooting)

•      Can be done by suggesting action taking place in offscreen space

•      Can be done in postproduction by using multiple screens

  

Masking 

•      frame shape is changed by “attaching masks over either the camera’s or printer’s lens”

•      iris = circular mask

•      other shapes are also

   used (vertical/horizontal)

•      can be done with onscreen

    objects

•      manipulates viewer attention

  

Masking through Objects

  

Multiple Screens

•      each can have a static or moving picture

•      each can have a distinct shape and aspect ratio of its own

•      can be distorted or not

  

•      Despite use of multiple screens, viewer is still quite aware of the space within the frame.

  

Onscreen & Offscreen Space 

•      implies additional narrative space outside of the frame

•      relies on viewer’s imagination

•      increases potential for space and action

•      can facilitate suspense, surprise, fear, curiousity, importance, awareness, etc.

  

Noël Burch’s 6 Zones of Offscreen Space 

•            space beyond left side of the frame 

•            space beyond right side of the frame 

•            space above the frame 

•            space below the frame 

•            space behind the set on the frame 

•            space behind the camera 

  

Camera Shots

•      Provides viewers with the sense of being close or far away from elements of mise-en-scène. 

•      Seven standard camera shots, based on the scale of the human body (even there is none pictured): 

•      extreme long shot (XLS) 

•      long shot (LS) 

•      medium long shot (MLS) 

•      medium shot (MS) 

•      medium close-up (MCU) 

•      close-up (CU) 

•      extreme close up (XCU) 

  

Mobile Framing

•             When the framing of the object changes during the shot.

  

•             Achieved through camera movement while shooting.

  

•             Five general types of camera movement, each creating its own visual effect (pan, tilt, dolly, trucking, crane).

  

Five Basic Types of Camera Movement 

•      panning = when camera turns right or left but position from subject is fixed (scans space horizontally) 

•      tilt = when camera swivels upward or downward but position from subject is fixed (scans space vertically) 

•      dolly = when camera itself moves closer to or farther away from subject 

•      trucking = when camera itself moves laterally to subject 

•      crane = when camera is above ground and moves in the air in any direction 

  

Summary

•             framing • different aspect ratios   •  can be manipulated through:   •  masking   • multiple screens  •             camera shots  •  camera movement (mobile framing)

  

COM 402
Media Aesthetics

Screen Forces

 

Screen Forces

 

•             definition: highly specific field forces that operate within the framed, two-dimensional  image 

 

•             main directions

•             frame & graphic mass magnetism

•             headroom and leadroom

•             screen asymmetry

•             figure & ground

•             psychological closure

•             vectors

 

Main Directions
horizontal & vertical

•      Generally, horizontal images suggests calmness & tranquility.

•      While a vertical image (generally) suggests power and excitement.

•      Our human world (both natural and constructed) is mostly made up of horizontals and verticals.

 

Tilting the Camera

•      tilts the horizontal frame (canted angle)

•      can destabilize a scene

•      can suggest energy and activity

•      can suggest stress or tension

•      can suggest a psychologically disturbed point of view or vision

•      can suggest a whimsical perspective

•      can cause nausea

  

Frame and Mass Magnetism

•      Frame borders and objects with graphic mass function, perceptually, like magnets.

•      Frame sides and corners appear to pull filmed objects toward them.

•      Depending on your communication goals, this affects how you need to compose your shots.

•      headroom

•      size of shot

•      action you are filming

 

headroom

•      placement of a head in the frame is strategic

•      can be aesthetically “comfortable” or not

•      can suggest direction of action

 

leadroom

•      amount of space between person’s profile and opposite edge of the frame

•      where you locate the profile depends on the context and your preferred reading of the image 

 

Rule of Thirds

•      For the rule of thirds, imagine a giant ticktacktoe on your frame. 

–   It divides it into three sections horizontally and three sections vertically. 

•      The four spots where the lines intersect—called the golden mean—are considered the best place to position subjects and objects of importance.

•      The rule of thirds also applies to objects. You’ll commonly see three distinct sections in a frame. 

•      Filmmakers commonly like to set up their shots in thirds, either horizontally or vertically, where there is something distinct in each section. 

•      Why?

•      Compositionally, it simply looks more pleasing to the eye.

 

Asymmetry

•      Notion that the two sides of the frame seem to be structurally unequal.

•      Some claim that viewers pay more attention to the right picture area.

•      People and objects on the left seem to be headed toward the right.

 

Figure & Ground

•      A perceptual tendency to grasp stable reference points against which we can assess less-stable elements.

•      ground = stable reference points or background

•      figure = less-stable elements

•      As a media artist, you must anticipate the probable figure/ground elements of your shots.

•      In a film or video, figure/ground relationship is always fluid (ever changing).

 

Characteristics

•      figure seems to be in front of the ground

•      figure is less stable than the ground

•      ground appears to continue behind the figure

•      ground seems like area, while figure seems like a “thing”

•      line that separates figure & ground seems to belong to the figure—not the ground

 

Psychological Closure

•      Notion that our minds tend to “fill in the gaps” in order to make sense of partial images.

•      We tend to perceive patterns given a minimal amount of visual information.

•      The pattern that results from this closure is called a gestalt.

 

 Proximity

•      We tend to view elements in close proximity to one another as forming patterns.

 

Similarity

•      We tend to view similar shapes as forming patterns. 

 

Continuity

•      When a dominant line or shape is established, other lines cutting across it do not seem to disturb its “wholeness.”

 

Vectors

•      vectors = “directional forces that lead our eyes from one point to another

•      can lead our eyes within and outside of the frame

•      A number of vectors operate simultaneously within the frame.

•      This is called a vector field.

•      Three types: graphic vectors, index vectors, and motion vectors

 

Graphic Vectors

•      created by stationary elements that guide our eyes in certain directions

 

Index Vectors

•      Caused by someone or something looking or pointing in a definite direction.
 

Motion Vector

•      Created by an object that is actually moving on the screen.

 

Vector Directions

•      Continuing vectors = when two or more vectors point in the same direction.

•      Converging vectors = when when vectors point toward each other or intersect

•      Diverging vectors = when index or motion vectors point away from each other.

 

Summary

The basics of screen forces:

 

•       main directions

•       frame & graphic mass magnetism

•       headroom and leadroom

•       screen asymmetry

•       figure & ground

•       psychological closure

•       vectors

 

COM 402
Media Aesthetics

Lens Choices & Perspective

  

Perspective Relations

•      perspective relations = “scale, depth, and spatial relations among parts of a scene”

•      In our everyday world, this is determined by the eye’s optical system, which registers light rays reflected from a scene.

•      When you film or videotape a scene, the camera’s lens imitates your eye’s optical system.

•      Unlike your eye, however, camera lenses can be changed.

  

Perspective Relations

•      Where you place the camera, as well as the type of lens you use, changes a viewer’s perception of perspective relations.

•      Perceptions affected by perspective manipulation:

–   depth of the frame

–   distance between the spectator and objects in the frame

–   distance between objects in the frame

–   size and volume of objects being filmed

–   spectator’s point of view

  

Today’s Issues

•      focal length

•      look and function of different lenses

•      depth of field

•      deep focus

•      selective focus

  

Focal Length 

•      focal length = the distance from the center of the camera lens to the actual film in the camera when the object being observed is focused

Focal Length

•      Focal length is measured in millimeters

•      Altering the focal length alters a viewer’s perception of photographed object magnification, depth, and scale.

•      Altering the focal length alters a viewer’s perception of distance between them and the objects in the frame.

•      Alters viewer’s perception of object size.

  

Manipulation of Focal Length

•      Focal length can be changed through four general categories of lenses:

1. wide-angle lens

2. normal lens

3. telephoto lens

4. zoom lens 

  

Wide-angle Lens
(usually less than 35mm)

•     short focal length 

•     allows more image in the frame 

•     can distort shapes near the frame’s edge 

•     exaggerates depth 

•     moving objects appear to cover more ground quickly 

  

Normal Lens
(35 to 50mm)

•     medium focal length 

•     horizontal/perpendicular lines appear straight 

•     parallel lines eventually seem to converge 

•     depth relationship between foreground and background appears “normal” 

Telephoto Lens
(75mm and up)

•     long focal length 

•     depth and volume cues are reduced (image appears flatter) 

•     objects farther from camera seem closer together 

•     can magnify action at a distance 

  

∙       Can enable shots otherwise difficult or impossible to obtain.

  

Zoom Lens
(variable mm) 

•      permits a variety of focal lengths in one shot

–   you can alter focal length while shooting

•      zooming in puts onscreen space offscreen

•      zooming out puts offscreen space onscreen

•      can be combined with mobile framing movements

•      speed of the zooming has different meanings

•      skillful zooming can manipulate :

–   a viewer’s attention

–   a viewer’s emotions

–   a viewer’s perceptions of what is important information

  

  

Depth of Field

•      depth of field = the distance range within which objects in the frame are in sharp focus

•      deep focus = greater depth of field, everything in the frame (both near and far) appears in focus

–   allows viewer more attentive freedom

•      selective focus = filmmaker focuses one plane and blurs others

–   used to manipulate a viewer’s attention

–   cannot be done with “automatic focus” on

  

  

Telephoto lenses have shallow depth of field. The longer the focal length of the lens, the more shallow the depth of field.

  

Summary

•      focal length

•      look and function of different lenses

•      depth of field

•      deep focus

•      selective focus

COM 402
Media Aesthetics

Camera Placement & Perspective

  

Importance of Planning

•      Every production choice you make should take into consideration the context of your communicative purpose.

•      As a creator of media, your purpose is to interpret, clarify, and intensify events.

•      Success in achieving this purpose requires that you know well in advance of shooting the perspective you intend the viewer to adopt as well as how you intend to achieve it.

  

Storyboard

•      “a series of sketches or still photos [frames] of the key points of view of an event in their proper sequence”

•      An effective storyboard contains:

–   camera shot (labeled and shown) and resulting point of view

–   sequence of shots

–   camera motion indicated by arrows

–   object motion indicated by arrows

–   pertinent audio information

  

Storyboard

•      The storyboard does not have to be a work of art.

•      Graphics can be hand drawn.

•      The idea is to give the production team enough information so each member can take the storyboards and begin to develop his/her portion of the final product.

•      Computerized storyboards are popular now in Hollywood.

  

  Field of View

Zettl’s definition: “how far away or close we perceive an object or a person appearing on-screen, or how much territory a shot includes”

  

•             medium long shot (MLS)

•             medium shot (MS)

•             medium close-up (MCU)

•             long shot (LS)

•             close-up (CU)

•             extreme close up (XCU)

•             extreme long shot (XLS)

  

Point of View

•             The meaning of this term depends on the context in which it is used. 

–          when the camera simulates an index vector of a person on the screen 

–          a specific character’s perspective 

–          can be internal (psychological) or external 

•             what the camera is looking at and from where 

•             when the camera’s viewpoint becomes involved in the narrative (commenting on an event) 

•             As viewers, we readily assume the camera’s viewpoint. 

  

Point of View
the straight-on shot 

•      Perspective of “looking at” an event

•      Also called the normal-angle or eye-level shot.

•      Communicates a normal point of view.

•      Usually used to clarify or interpret an event.

•      Often suggests an objective viewpoint.

•      Rarely does the normal angle intensify.

•      Suggests the viewer is observing an event.

  

  

Point of View
the low-angle shot 

•      Perspective of “looking up”at someone or something 

•      Also called the below-eye-level shot. 

•      The effectiveness of shots implying the perspective of looking up requires the viewer to be familiar with concept of hierarchy, superiority, and inferiority. 

•      usually used to intensify (not clarify) an event 

•      can suggest importance, power, immensity, authority, prestige, etc. (but not necessarily). 

•      can place the viewer in an “inferior” position 

  

Point of View
the high-angle shot 

•      Perspective of “looking down”at someone or something.

•      Also called an above-eye-level shot.

•      Depending on the height and context, this shot can communicate many things.

–   can diminish an object

–   can make objects or people seem less important or less powerful

•      Can cause viewers to identify with a superior, high-angle position.

  

  

Aerial Perspective

  

Subjective Point of View

•      suggests the viewer is participating in an event

–   we can assume main or supporting character’s perspective

  

   

Over-the-shoulder shot
O/S

•      often used in dialogue sequences

•      gives viewer the perspective of standing (or sitting) behind the shoulder of one of the conversants

•      allows us to quickly get different points of view

  

Cross-shot

•      tighter close-up of one of the conversants

–   can be used for speaking or reaction shot

•      conversation partner has been moved offscreen

•      also allows us to get different points of view

  

Reportorial Point of View
(also called direct-address) 

•      person looks directly into the camera

–   is aware of camera’s presence

–   seems to be directly addressing the viewer

•      ideal for television reporting

•      usually used for comic effect in film

•      sometimes used to convey a conversation in which the viewer briefly assumes a subjective POV

  

Summary

•      importance of planning 

•      storyboards 

•      field of view 

•      point of view (POV) 

–    straight-on shot 

–    low-angle shot 

–    high-angle shot 

•      objective POV 

•      subjective POV 

•      reportorial POV 

  

COM 402
Media Aesthetics 

Depth & Volume

  

Depth & Volume

•      depth = the illusion of three-dimensionality on the two-dimensional screen

–   part of Zettl’s concept of field of view: “how far away or close we perceive an object or a person appearing on-screen”

•      volume = the illusion of an object or a person on the two-dimensional screen appearing to be solid and occupying space

  

Z-axis
(remember geometry class?) 

•      x-axis = the width of the frontal plane

•      y-axis = the height of the frontal plane

•      z-axis = a point located away from the frontal plane

  

In Media Aesthetics 

•      x-axis = the width of the screen (limited)

•      y-axis = the height of the screen (limited)

•      z-axis = the perceived depth from the front of the screen going backward (unlimited)

–   z-axis provides most flexibility in composition

  

Screen Depth

•      planes = layers of space occupied by persons or objects

•    basic planes = foreground, middle ground, background 

•    intermediate planes can also exist in more complex compositions 

•      depth cues = indicators of perceived screen depth

•      depth staging = arrangement of objects on the video screen so that the foreground, background, and middle ground are each clearly defined.

Screen Depth Cues

•      interposition = plane depth is suggested through overlap of edges (overlapping planes), blocking our vision of a particular object. 

•      texture gradient = depth is suggested through apparent changes in texture. 

•      Plane depth is suggested through shading patterns. 

•      Plane depth is suggested through size diminution or relative size (smaller figures and objects seem farther away from us). 

•      Plane depth is suggest through height in plane. 

•      Plane depth is suggested through linear perspective. 

•      Plane depth is suggested through aerial perspective. 

•      Plane depth is suggested through movement. 

  

size diminution
(smaller objects seem farther away) 

  

Height in Plane
object perceived as more and more distant the higher it moves up in the picture until it reaches the horizon
(as long as camera is parallel to the ground) 

  

height in plane cues are not valid when camera does not shoot parallel to the ground 

  

Linear Perspective 

•      parallel lines converge in the distance

•      vertical and horizontal lines becoming more crowded the further they are from the camera

•      vanishing point = when all parallel lines converge and stop 

  

Aerial Perspective

•      Colors lose their density and become less saturated the farther they are away from the camera.

•      This suggests distance.

  

Depth Through Movement

•      Movement along the z-axis toward the background suggests depth.

  

shallow-space compositions

  

    where planes seem only slightly separated

  

deep-space compositions

  

where a significant distance seems to separate planes

  

Depth with zoom lens

•      wide angle shots (zooming out) suggests distance between planes and quicker movement (z-axis expanded)

•      narrow angle shots (zooming in) suggests collapse of plane distance and minimal movement (z-axis compressed)

  

Volume

•      Volume is the perception of an object or a person on the two-dimensional screen appearing to be solid and occupying space 

•      Volume can be suggested through shape, shading (casting of shadows), and movement.

•      positive volume = a screen image that has the appearance of substance (trees, people, weasels, things) 

•      negative volume = a screen image that appears to be empty space 

•      volume duality = interplay between positive and negative volumes 

–    objects with positive volume help to articulate negative volume space 

dominant positive volume
(effect is restricted operating space) 

  

dominant negative volume
(effect is isolation) 

  

Summary

•      depth & volume 

•      x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis 

•      screen depth & planes 

–    foreground 

–    middle ground 

–    background 

•      depth cues = indicators of perceived screen depth 

–    interposition, texture gradient, shading, size diminution, height in plane, linear perspective, aerial perspective, movement 

•      positive & negative volume 

•      volume duality 

  

COM 402
Media Aesthetics 

Time & Motion

  

Two Concepts of Time

•      objective (clock time)

–   measured quantitatively

–   years, months, days, hours, minutes, seconds, nanoseconds, etc.

•      subjective (perceived duration of events)

–   psychological or “felt”

–   measured qualitatively (i.e., our relative awareness of time based on our level of involvement in an event)

  

General Divisions of Time

•      We experience time as going in one direction (linear time).

Past (objective)

Present (subjective)

Future (objective)

  

Film Time

•      Unlike live broadcasts (where we are tied to the time flow of the event), screen events (those recorded on film or videotape) are open to “medium manipulation.”

–   screen events have their own objective and subjective times

•      This allows media artists to clarify and intensify events through time manipulation.

•      You can even arrange events in nonlinear order.

•      This manipulation of objective and subjective time is called timing.

  

  

  Types of Objective (quantitative) Time

•      Clock Time

•      Running Time 

–   Sequence Time 

–   Scene Time 

–   Shot Time 

•      Story Time 

  

Clock Time 

•      the “at” position of an event 

•      can be both real time or fictional time 

  

Running Time (screen duration) 

•      specifies the overall length of an event or event segment (program, movie, commercial, etc.) 

•      plot = all information provided to spectator during running time 

  

Sequence Time 

•      length of an event sequence 

•      a subdivision of running time 

  

Scene Time 

•      clock time duration of a scene

–   a scene is defined by action in a single location within a single story time span

•      a subdivision of running time

  

Shot Time 

•      clock time duration of a shot

•      smallest operational unit in a media production

•      the interval between two transitions

–   cut to cut

–   dissolve to fade, etc.

  

  

Story Time

•      sometimes called story duration

•      Story time is the objective time span implied by the story.

–   can be short and cohesive (Dazed and Confused)

–   can be longer and more expansive (Elizabeth)

–   can be only segments (Bridget Jones’s Diary)

  

Story Time

•      As active viewers, we construct story time based on what the plot (everything included in the running time) presents us. 

–    in chronological order or not 

–    most plots do not show all (movie exceptions/High Noon, Rope) 

  

•      As spectators, we fill in the gaps and try to determine chronological order of a story’s events. 

  

•      The reordering of story events can result in surprise, revelation, and stronger emphasis on particular events. 

  

Temporal Order

•      chronological order = presenting events as they would occur in linear time

  

•      flashback = going from the present, to the past, and back to the present again

  

•      flashforward = going from the present, to the future, and back to the present again

  

  

Temporal Frequency

•      The plot may repeat the same event in a film. 

–    sometimes through flashbacks 

–    sometimes from different perspectives 

–    Each repeated event may provide us with more information and context. (American Beauty) 

  

•      Active viewing is required to recognize a film plot’s cues regarding chronological sequence, time span of the story, and repetition of events. 

  

Types of Subjective (qualitative) Time

•      Pace = perceived speed of an event 

–    quick, slow, in between 

–    Straight Story 

–    Matrix 

•      Rhythm = flow within and among event segments (shots, scenes, sequences) 

•      an important consideration of editing 

–    determined by the pace of individual segments and how they relate to each other 

–    determined by transitions, beat of a scene, music 

–    can be smooth, eratic, 

  

Motion

  

Principal Motions

•             primary motion = event motion (takes place in front of the camera)

–         motion of performers, objects, trains, trucks, elves, weasels, earthworms, bees, etc.

•             secondary motion = camera motion (mobile framing movements and zooms)

•             tertiary motion = movement and rhythm induced by shot changes

–         cuts, fades, wipes, etc.

  

Primary Motion Functions

•      indicates whether object is in motion or static

•      indicates direction of movement in relation to the camera (and spectator)

–   x-axis motion (pedestrian crossing street)

–   z-axis motion (pedestrian walking down street)

–   y-axis motion (pedestrian suddenly flying up in the air)

•      event traffic = all primary motion within a filmed event

–   you must adjust event traffic to fit the camera position (especially if you are intensifying the event)

–   but do not force event traffic to fit the camera

  

Secondary Motion Functions

•      to follow the action 

–    one of the most natural and least obtrusive functions 

•      to reveal action 

–    can dramatize, create tension, surprise, etc. 

•      to reveal landscape 

–    more dramatic than a long shot 

•      to relate events 

–    to imply connections or meanings 

•      to induce action 

–    simulates motion 

•      to simulate spectator movement 

  

Zooming & Dollying

•      camera remains stationary during a zoom and moves during a dolly

•      zoom-in (object being filmed gets larger and seems to come closer to the camera)

•      zoom-out (object being filmed gets smaller and seems to move away from the camera)

•      dolly-in (seems to take spectator into the scene)

•      dolly-out (seems to withdraw spectator out of the scene)

  

Tertiary Motion Functions

•      indicates a moment of change

•      suggests interplay of vector fields

•      provides necessary links between shots

•      contribute to the rhythm and pace of a show

•      guide viewer attention and feelings

•      supply structural unity

  

We will begin to discuss specific transitions and the range of their functions next week. 

  

Summary

•      objective (measured) and subjective (psychological) time 

•      linear time (past, present, and future) 

•      timing (manipulation of screen time) 

•      clock Time 

•      running Time 

–    sequence Time 

–    scene Time 

–    shot Time 

•      story Time 

•      temporal order and frequency 

•      types of objective and subjective time 

•      primary, secondary, and tertiary motion 

 COM 402
Media Aesthetics 

Editing I

  

Tertiary Motion

•      tertiary motion = sequence motion, perceived movement derived from the changing of shots

  

•      transition = the moment of change between two shots

  

•      Through transitions, viewers usually perceive a movement of progressive, visual development from shot to shot.

  

Tertiary Motion Functions

•      provides necessary links between shots (indicates a moment of change)

•      suggests interplay of vector fields

•      contributes to the rhythm and pace of production

•      guides viewer attention and feelings

•      supplies structural unity to the production

•      Goodbye tertiary motion, hello editing.

  

Editing

“Editing strongly shapes viewers’ experiences, even if they are not aware of it.”

• editing = “the coordination of one shot with the next”

• In commercial filmmaking, crews usually shoot a substantial amount of footage, including several takes of each scene.

• Footage is screened, unwanted footage is discarded, and the remaining footage is arranged and joined together (editing).

  

  

  

  

Continuity Editing

•      also known as “invisible” editing (does not call attention to itself or remind viewer they are watching a movie)

•      purpose is to create a smooth flow from shot to shot

•      Historically, this is the typical editing style of most Hollywood movies.

•      designed to tell a story clearly and coherently

  

We will discuss this is greater detail next week. 

  

Dimensions of Editing
Four General Areas of Control 

•     graphic relations 

  

•     rhythmic relations 

  

•     spatial relations 

  

•     temporal relations 

  

  

Dimensions of Film Editing
Graphic Relations 

•      “purely pictorial qualities” of a shot

•      “patterns of light and dark, line and shape, volumes and depths, movement and stasis”

•      graphic match = linking shots through graphic similarities

–   similar shapes

–   similar movements

–   similar colors

  

   

Dimensions of Film Editing
Graphic Relations 

•      graphically discontinuous editing = avoiding graphic similarities from one shot to the next

•      mild discontinuous editing (part of the pictorial qualities may be similar, while others are not)

–   shot/reverse-shot

•      stronger discontinuous editing = where a greater degree or all of a shot’s pictorial qualities differ or even clash

  

Dimensions of Film Editing
Rhythmic Relations 

•      the control of shot lengths in relation to one another

•      series of similar shot lengths can establish a steady beat of narrative progression

•      series of successively lengthening shots can slow down narrative pace

•      series of successively shorter shots can quicken narrative pace

  

  

Dimensions of Film Editing
Rhythmic Relations 

•      Editing rhythm can generate suspense or lessen tension.

•      Shot duration controls viewer’s time to grasp and reflect on what they see.

•      Fast cutting can be used to build excitement.

–   action sequence

–   music video

–   TV commercials

  

    

Dimensions of Film Editing
Spatial Relations 

•      “Editing permits the filmmaker to relate any two points in space through similarity, difference, or development.”

•      similarity 

–   A long shot establishes a setting, followed by a medium of shot of one person (in that setting).

–   A close shot of someone looking at something followed by a shot of an object implies that person is looking at that object.

–   cannon firing (cause & effect)

  

Dimensions of Film Editing
Spatial Relations 

•             the Kuleshov effect = “any series of shots that in the absence of an establishing shot prompts the spectator to infer a spatial whole on the basis of seeing only portions of the space.”

•             neutral shots of an actor’s face followed by:

•           shot of soup

•           shot of nature

•           shot of dead woman

•           shot of baby

  

Dimensions of Film Editing
Spatial Relations 

•      simultaneous action = emphasis of action taking place in difference places at the same time

•      crosscutting = (parallel editing) cuts from one space to another (implied)

–   from a German soldier to an American GI

–   from outside a besieged fort to inside the same fort

–   from a wagon train under attack to the rescuing cavalry riding to the scene

  

  

Dimensions of Film Editing
Temporal Relations 

•            control of time of a film’s action 

•            plot manipulates story time by cuing the viewer to construct: 

•            order of a story’s events 

•            duration of a story’s events 

•            frequency of a story’s events 

  

  

Dimensions of Film Editing
Temporal Relations: Order 

•            can alternate between past, present, and future 

•            presumed story order = 1-2-3-4 

•            reverse order = 4-3-2-1 

•            flashbacks & flashforwards 

  

  

Dimensions of Film Editing
Temporal Relations: Duration 

•      real time = presenting presumed actual duration of story action

•      temporal ellipsis = shortening of plot (screen time) to present story action quicker

–   punctuation = using a cut, wipe, dissolve, or fade to indicate passing of time

–   empty frame = action leaves one frame and enters another, indicating passing of time

–   cutaway = cut from action to other action and back, indicating passing of time

  

  

Dimensions of Film Editing
Temporal Relations: Duration 

•      temporal expansion = prolonging screen action beyond actual story time (opposite of ellipsis)

–   overlapping = repeating partial story action through different shots of same event

–   (e.g., character takes longer to fall to the floor than they would in real life)

–   can also be done with slow motion (a function of cinematography)

–   American Beauty 

  

Dimensions of Film Editing
Temporal Relations: Frequency 

•     full-scale repetition of same event 

•     can be two or more complete takes of same action 

•     can build up tension in viewer expectations 

  

Editing
Basic Transition Types
(special transition effects later)

•      cut = an instantaneous change from one shot to another

•      dissolve = one shot gradually replaces another through a blending process of the two shots

•      wipe = a boundary line (or some geometric shape) gradually moves over the frame, replacing one shot with another 

•      fade-out = a shot gradually fades to black

•      fade-in = a shot gradually fades in from black

  

  

  

Cut

•      an instantaneous change from one shot to another

•      most common and useful of all transitions

•      invisible (occupies neither time nor space)

–   but we speak of it as if it were a visible change

•      Of all the transitions, cutting most closely resembles changing visual fields by the human eye.

•      Cutting is the simplest and least obtrusive way of manipulating screen density, space, & time. 

  

Jump Cut

•      an image that “jumps” slightly from one screen position to another during a cut

•      used to always be considered a production flaw

•      now used to indicate a brief time ellipses

•      reminds viewer they are watching a movie or TV show

•      effect can be lessened with a “soft cut”

  

Dissolve

•     one shot gradually replaces another through a blending process of the two shots 

•     temporary overlap 

•     visible (occupies time and space) 

•     can be long or short 

•     appears smoother than a cut 

•     temporary directional confusion of vectors 

  

•      never ends a shot—just blends in a new one

•      good for suggesting sequence fluidity

•      a superimposition is merely a dissolve stopped midway

•      dissolves aid continuity (where cuts are rough or would not suffice)

•      dissolves act as a time bridge

Wipe 

•      a boundary line (or some geometric shape) gradually moves over the frame, replacing one shot with another 

•      first image moves aside to reveal second image

•      creates its own motion vectors

•      Like the dissolve, wipes do not end shots; they advance new ones.

•      They often signal divisions between scenes and sequences.

•      Wipes often signal the end of one event and the beginning of another.

  

Fade-in

•      a shot gradually fades from black 

•      usually signifies the beginning of a sequence 

Fade-out 

•      a shot gradually fades to black 

•      usually signifies an end of a sequence 

  

•      both suggest less energy than a cut 

•      cross-fade = quick fade-out followed by an immediate fade-in of the next shot 

–    suggests a more obvious indication of a scene or sequence change than a cut 

  

Summary

•      editing = “the coordination of one shot with the next”

•      four dimensions of editing

–   graphic 

–   rhythmic 

–   spatial (Kuleshov effect, crosscutting)

–   temporal (ellipsis, expansion, continuity/invisible, discontinuity)

•      basic transitions (cut, dissolve, wipe, fade-in & fade-out)

COM 402
Media Aesthetics #11

Editing II 

Continuity Editing

•     Continuity, from the root word continue 

•     continuing what came before 

•     Historically, this is the typical editing style of most Hollywood movies & TV shows. 

•     primary purpose is clarification of events 

•     designed to tell a story (relate information in narrative form) clearly and coherently 

  

Continuity Editing

•      goal is to create a smooth flow from shot to shot

•      “invisible” = does not call attention to itself or remind viewer they are watching a movie

•      Assumption: viewers are constructing a “mental map” (cognitive map) based on the info they see and hear.

–   both onscreen and offscreen

•      Continuity editing helps viewers to construct and maintain this mental map.

  

Common Continuity Editing Shots

•      establishing shot = usually a distance-framed shot that establishes the spatial relations among important figures, objects, and setting in a scene

•      cut-in = instant shift from distant framing to a closer view of some portion of the same space

•      shot/reverse shot = two or more shots edited together that alternate characters, typically in a conversation

  

  

Common Continuity Editing Shots

•      eyeline match = a cut where the first shot of someone looking at something is followed by a second shot of what they are presumed to see

•      action match = a cut where action taking place in the first shot continues in the same direction in the next shot (action seems uninterrupted)

•      reestablishing shot = return to view of an entire space after a series of closer shots following the establishing shot 

  

Continuity Editing
Crosscutting 

•      crosscutting = “editing that alternates shots of two or more lines of action occurring in different places, usually simultaneously”

•      gives viewer unrestricted knowledge of causal, temporal, and spatial information

•      binds varied spatial action together through implication of temporal simultaneity

–   unrestricted knowledge is when viewers know more than characters do

–   restricted knowledge is when viewers only know what characters do, and often less.

  

Continuity Editing
Zettl’s Key Concepts
(based on vectors)
(He really likes vectors.) 

•             graphic vector continuity

•             index vector continuity

•             index vector line (180° line, axis of action)

•             motion vector continuity

•             motion vector line

•             miscellaneous continuity factors

  

Graphic Vector Continuity

•      spatial continuity = principle of maintaining spatial consistency from shot to shot

•      maintaining a consistent horizon line, both indoors and outdoors

•      similar space & volume from shot to shot

•      does not really indicate a direction

  

Index Vector continuity

•      important part of establishing and maintaining a viewer’s mental map

•      maintains consistent screen direction

•      maintains consistent eyelines

•      Viewers should always know where characters (and self) are in relation to each other and the screen event.

•      Let’s consider the consequences of continuing, converging, and diverging vectors from shot to shot.

  

Continuing Index Vectors
(pointing in the same direction) 

•      goal = to get viewers to perceive separate shots as one simultaneous event

•      persons looking in one direction in the first shot should continue looking in the same direction in the following shots

•      target object continuity = persons appearing to be looking at someone or something in the first shot should be followed by object of their gaze appearing to be located in the direction in which they were looking

–  applies to both onscreen and offscreen 

  

  Converging Index Vectors
(vectors crossing paths) 

•      goal = to get viewers to perceive separate shots as one simultaneous event 

•      Example: Close-ups of people talking to each other following a two-shot of the same must maintain original index convergence.

•      Example: Having established the spatial relationship between audience members and a speaker, subsequent shots must reflect the original index convergences.

  

Diverging Index Vectors
(pointing away from each other) 

•      goal = to get viewers to perceive separate shots as one simultaneous event

•      If you establish index vectors pointing in different directions, you should maintain the original index divergence in the next shot. 

•      Example: two people fighting and looking in opposite directions in initial shot should be doing the same in subsequent close-ups.

  

Index Vector Line

•      also called “axis of action,” “180° line,” “the line,” or “the principal vector”

•      This is an invisible 180° line that the camera does not cross over in order to present screen action in consistent direction.

–   (person walking down the street always moving from left to right)

•      keeps an object in the same screen area from shot to shot

–   violation of 180° line rule thought to confuse and  disorient viewers (mess up their mental map

  

   

Index Vector Line

Established by Converging Index Vectors 

  

Index Vector Line

•      Is not the same as the Z-axis.

•      They can be, however, but only if there are converging vectors along the Z-axis.

  

Index Vector Line Rules

•      cross shooting:

–   If using one camera, keep shooting from one side of the vector line.

–   If using two cameras, keep both on one side of the vector line—not one on each

•      O/S shooting:

–   keep cameras on one side of the vector line

  

Motion Vector Continuity

•      important in establishing and maintaining the viewer’s mental map.

•      Like index vectors, motion vectors are continuing, converging, and diverging.

•      Camera placement desiring continuity can get tricky when shots include both motion and index vectors.

  

Continuing Motion Vectors

•      Having established the direction of a moving object in one shot, you must keep the camera on the same side of the motion vector line in subsequent shots in order to maintain the direction.

•      Preserving principal direction in subsequent scenes.

–   If you have a guy riding a motorcycle to Wyoming and you show this from screen right to screen left, subsequent shots must also show the motorcycle riding from screen right to screen left (unless , of course, ha has become dissatisfied with Wyoming and is returning to Denver).

Converging Motion Vectors

•      If you show objects heading toward each other, they should eventually converge.

•      Camera placement maintains these directions by shooting from the same side.

  

Diverging Motion Vectors

•      If two objects are shown as going in opposite directions, subsequent shots should be made in order to maintain  those directions.

  

Zero-directionality Cutaway

•      You may switch sides of the motion vector line in subsequent shots if you interfect a zero-directionality cutaway.

•      This is when you splice in a shot whose motion vector(s) are not related to those already established.

  

Vector Line

•      In field shooting, crews typically shoot more footage than needed (production phase). 

•      For the sake of efficiency, shots are often shot out of sequence. 

•      These shots are expected to be properly sequenced later in postproduction (editing). 

•      If shooting for continuity, make sure your shots reflect proper camera placement regarding vector lines. 

•      Postproduction cannot correct for careless camera placement that violates vector line rules for maintaining continuity. 

  

    

Action Continuity

•      To ensure maximum continuity, cut during the action, not before or after it.

  

•      When cutting during secondary motion (camera movement), you should try to continue that movement in the shot you are cutting to (if you want to maintain continuity).

–   pan, tracking shot, tilt, etc.

  

Color and Environment Continuity

•      Depending differences in weather, lighting, and white balance settings, colors and other onscreen objects intended to be the same from shot to shot may vary between shooting sessions.

•      Pay attention to these factors while shooting.

•      Don’t expect to fix them in postproduction.

  

Continuity

•      Establishing and maintaining continuity also depends a lot on your manipulation of sound.

•      We’ll talk about sound in a couple of weeks.

  

Summary

•      continuity editing defined 

•      primary purpose is clarification 

•      index motion vectors 

–    continuing 

–    converging 

–    diverging 

•      motion index vectors 

–    continuing 

–    converging 

–    diverging 

COM 402
Media Aesthetics 

Editing for Discontinuity

  

Editing for Discontinuity

•      Zettl calls this complexity editing. 

•      It’s primary function is to intensify an event and reveal its complexity.

•      This does not have to be an either/or choice.

•      Continuity editing can be followed to a degree.

•      Degrees of continuity violations can be done spatially, temporally, rhythmically,and graphically.

  

Complexity Editing

•      A media artist can violate or ignore the 180 ° rule, presenting multiple spatial perspectives of same event.

•      A media artist can use a jump cut.

•      A media artist can make the camera circle around an ongoing conversation rather than cut back and forth.

•       In any case, continuity takes a back seat.

  

Editing for Discontinuity

•      nondiegetic insert = cutting in shots seemingly unrelated to the story

–   sometimes symbolic

–   sometimes regarded as commentary on the action

•      filmmaker can cut to same character involved in continuous action but in completely different setting

–   can emphasize change in emotional or psychological state

–   Zettl calls this affecting subjective rather than objective time

  

  

  Editing for Discontinuity

•      temporal order and frequency may be violated

–   Catch 22 

–   Pulp Fiction 

–   can emphasize key events or provide motivational insight

•      temporal expansion can be exaggerated

–   Joe Versus the Volcano (jumping into the volcano)

–   can emphasize narrative turning points

–   Battleship Potemkin

  

Editing for Discontinuity

•      Viewers can adjust to discontinuity editing within a particular media system.

•      Viewers can eventually come to recognize discontinuity editing in a number of films, thus making it appear more conventional.

•      Discontinuity editing can (and often does) result in narrative ambiguity.

–   Many American viewers of narrative films and TV, in particular, do not appreciate cinematic ambiguity.

  

Editing for Discontinuity

•      However, American viewers have become quite familiar with discontinuity editing in non-narrative media productions.

–   commercials

–   music videos

–   avant-garde productions

–   movie trailers (previews)

  

Sergei Eisenstein
Father of Complexity Editing

one of the most cannonized directors in filmmaking 

   

Sergei Eisenstein

•      film’s purpose and value = to persuade mass audiences—an ideal propaganda vehicle

•      Filmmakers can produce a calculated effect.

•      Film is an art (to serve the revolution).

•      Montage (dynamic editing) is the basis of film art.

•      Combination of images is the essence of cinema.

•      Meaning is created through synthesis.

  

Eisenstein & Montage
Two Types (there are others) 

•    intellectual montage 

  

•    dialectical montage 

  

Eisenstein
Intellectual Montage

•      photo fragments (shots) of nature 

•      combination of shots creates synthesis 

•      synthesis is entirely new meaning 

•      based on Japanese hieroglyphs 

•      concrete, concise images (depictables) 

•      depictables combined to create undepictables 

–    dog + mouth = to bark 

–    eye + water = crying 

Eisenstein
Dialectical Montage

(shots collide, conflict, and contrast to provoke viewers emotionally) 

•      confliction through direction (between/within shots)

•      confliction through rhythm

•      confliction through bulk

•      confliction through camera angle & close/long shots

•      confliction through intensity of light

•      confliction through intensity of emotion

•      confliction through vitality (static/moving)

  

  

Montage

•      It is because of Eisenstein’s theories and practice of film montage (directly or indirectly) that we experience alternatives to continuity editing today.

–   commercials

–   music videos

–   avant-garde productions

–   movie trailers (previews)

•      And, more and more, in our commercial films and TV shows.

  

Zettl’s Montage

•      Metric Montage

•      Analytical Montage

–   sequential analytical montage

–   sectional analytical montage

•      Idea-Associative Montage

–   comparison montage

–   collision montage

  

Metric Montage

•      a series of images flashed on the screen at more or less equally spaced intervals

•      establishes a rhythm to the structure of your production

•      accelerated metric montage = when the shots become progressively shorter

–   to give the sense of a quickening pace

  

  

Analytical Montage

•      selecting the essential elements of an event and synthesizing them into an intensified screen event

•      sequential analytical montage = when you condense an event into its key developmental elements while maintaining their original linear order 

  

  

•      sectional analytical montage = temporarily arrests the progression of an event and examines an isolated moment from various viewpoints

•      viewers tend to adopt the perspective of those in the first shots presented

  

Idea-Associative Montage

•      similar to the Kuleshov effect

•      juxtaposition of two seemingly disassociated images in order to create a third principal idea

•      comparison montage = juxtaposing two or more thematically related events to reinforce a theme or basic idea

–   hypodermic needle + bag of smack + CU of teenager with bloodshot eyes = teen drug problem

  

•      collision montage = juxtaposing two or more opposite events in order to generate or reinforce a basic idea or feeling

  

•      hungry girl starving + fat boy stuffing himself = social injustice

  

•      poor child in rags walking along a dirt road + rich yuppie driving BMW convertible = excessive materialism

  

Final Editing thoughts

•      Unless making an art film, commercial, music video, make continuity editing your default style.

•      Use discontinuous editing sparingly when telling stories.

•      That way, it’s more effective for creating an impact on your viewers.

COM 402
Lecture #13 

Sound 

  

•      Sound engages one of the five senses.

•      Sound plays a significant role in a viewer’s interpretation of images.

•      Sound requires at least as much attention in production and postproduction as visual imagery.

•      Sound counterbalances silence.

•      Zettl distinguishes between sound and noise.

–   sound = is organized; it has a purpose in the production.

–   noise = random, annoying sounds

  

Diegetic and Nondiegetic Sound
(Zettl calls these “literal” and “nonliteral” sounds)

•      diegetic = sound perceived as coming from within the story world

–   guy appears to be singing, we hear a man’s singing voice

–   gun shoots, we hear a gunshot

–   sounds outside frame can still come from the story

• Three Stooges sound effects

•      nondiegetic = sound perceived as coming from outside the story world

–   patriotic music as soldiers appear to win a battle  

  

3 Types of Sound
used in media productions 

•      speech = use of language and dialogue

  

•      music = orchestration of sound through rhythm, pitch, melody, chords, and volume.

  

•      sound effects = all other sounds, including noise

  

Speech

•            transmits story and other information 

•            usually ranks highest in importance 

  

Three Types 

•            dialogue 

•            direct address 

•            narration 

  

Dialogue

•     in real life, a conversation between two individuals 

•     in a media production, it also means this 

•     it also refers to just one person talking 

•     it can also refer to an internal dialogue 

  

Functions of Dialogue

•     Dialogue is used to: 

–  reveal a production’s theme 

–  relate essential elements of a story 

–  reveal key elements of characterization 

–  describe important contextual elements of environment, location, etc. 

Functions of Direct Address

•      when the performer speaks directly to the viewer(s)

•      implies viewers are dialogue partners

•      good for informational exchange

•      suggests information is of immediate concern

•      We expect direct address on TV.

•      Direct address is more surprising and obtrusive in movies.

  

Narration

•      narrator = “a specific agent who purports to be telling us the story.”

•      character narrator = plays a role in the story (Sunset Boulevard)

•      noncharacter narrator = offscreen, does not play a role in the story

–   common in documentary

–   “voice of God” narrator

–   “voice of history” narrator

  

Music

•      usually subordinate to dialogue

•      Music dominates in dance scenes, transitional sequences, emotion-laden moments.

•      can create a specific mood

•      can describe an internal condition

•      can provide additional energy for a scene

•      can supplement the rhythmic structure of a production

  

  

Strategic Functions of Nondiegetic Music 

•     To enhance viewer perceptions of historical verisimilitude. 

  

•     To cultivate receptive moods for the presentation of information. 

  

Historical Verisimilitude

•     Historical authenticity and accuracy (appearance of truth) 

•     Associative 

–   Filmmakers use music they hope viewers will associate with the historical period suggested by the images.

•     Capitalize on cultural nostalgia and viewer knowledge 

•     Sometimes subtle and transparent 

•     Sometimes more overt 

  

Cultivating Receptive Moods

•     Emotive 

•     Usually transparent 

•     Corresponds with “invisible” or continuity editing 

•     Intended to guide viewers toward feeling a certain way about the events being depicted 

•     Develop and sustain dramatic tension 

•     Contrasts with periods of no music 

  

Sound Effects

•      usually subordinate to both dialogue and music

•      realism: used to simulate a realistic environment

•      clearer, simpler than everyday life

•      human selective hearing simulated through sound mixing

•      Foley sounds = key sounds added in postproduction

–   following footsteps on a wet sidewalk

–   gun cocking

–   Foley artist = person who records and/or adds Foley sounds

  

Sound Mixing

•      Human ear selectively filters sonic information to make sense of the world.

•      Microphones are not selective.

•      Mixing simulates the selective listening process.

•      Sounds are ordered chronologically.

•      Sounds are ranked in importance dynamically (volume).

•      Sounds are then combined and layered.

  

Sound’s Perceptual Properties

•      Loudness = volume

–   Changes in sound volume are called dynamics. 

  

•      Pitch = perceived highness or lowness of a sound

  

•      Timbre = basically, a sound’s tonal quality (bright, crisp, muffled, narrow, broad)

  

Functions of Sound

•      to simulate the real world 

–    “dry” sounds are given ambience (“sweetening” the sound) 

–    louder sounds are associated with objects closer to the camera 

–    sound and dialogue overlap 

•      to direct attention to what is narratively or visually important 

–    cues a viewer to expect narrative changes 

–    directs a viewer’s attention within an image 

•      to enhance continuity 

–    dialogue, music, sound overlap 

–    distracts viewer from shot changes 

Functions of Sound

•      to enhance production unity 

•      sound motif = reoccurring sound throughout a media production 

•      leitmotiv (leading motif) =a short musical phrase or specific sound effect that signals the appearance of a person, action, or situation. 

–    musical theme 

–    Jaws sound 

•      Variations of a musical theme can suggest changes in character attitudes and narrative circumstances. 

–    Jaws sound gets faster prior to an attack 

  

Dimensions of Film Sound

•     Rhythm = duration of a sound (beat, tempo, pattern of accents) 

–  musical rhythm (fast or slow song) 

–  speech rhythm (suggests energy and excitement levels) 

•     Fidelity = the extent to which the sound is faithful to its perceived source 

–  suggests reality or plausibility 

–  infidelity used for surprise or comic effect 

  

Dimensions of Film Sound

•      Space = sense of spatial conditions in which sound is perceived to occur

–   sound perspective = when you match sounds with the camera’s perspective

–   close-up shots with “close” sounds

–   longer shots with sounds seeming to be farther away

•      Time = relationship between time on the soundtrack and time represented in the image

–   synchronous/asynchronous

–   simultaneous/nonsimultaneous

  

  

External/Internal Diegetic Sound

•      External Diegetic (source-connected) = that which viewers take to have a physical source in the scene 

–    we see and hear a car crash 

–    we see and hear a face punch 

–    we see and hear a tiny baby speak fluent English 

•      (source-disconnected) = off-screen sounds that suggest an unseen source 

–    hearing a tiny baby speak fluent English from another room 

•      Internal Diegetic = that which viewers take to come from inside a character’s mind 

–    someone’s thoughts 

–    memory of an event (car crash) 

–    haunted by a tiny baby speaking English 

  

Sound Perspective

•      Sense of visual depth, volume, and spatial distance is enhanced or reinforced by sound.

•      volume

–   loud sounds suggest nearness

–   quieter sounds suggest distance

•      ambience

–   “dry” sounds suggest nearness

–   resonating sounds suggest distance

–   stereophonic and surround sound suggest distance

  

Time

•      Time represented in the soundtrack can correspond or vary from that represented in the image.

•      synchronous sound = matching of sound with projected image in the plot (dialogue)

•      asynchronous sound = sound is not matched with projected image in the plot (calls attention to the mechanical illusion of film)

  

  

Time

•      simultaneous sound = when the sound takes place at the same time as the image in terms of the story events (very common)

  

•      nonsimultaneous sound = when the sound heard occurred earlier or later in the story than the events we see in the image

–   sonic flashback

–   trial testimony

–   use of narrator

  

  

Summary

•      diegetic/nondiegetic sound 

–    internal diegetic/external diegetic 

•      Types of Sound (speech, music, sound effects/ noise) 

•      Perceptual Properties (loudness, pitch, timbre) 

•      Functions of sound 

•      Dimensions of film sound (rhythm, fidelity, space, time) 

•      synchronous/nonsynchronous 

•      simultaneous/nonsimultaneous